Scalable Technology

n ntgrtd crct (C), ls knwn s mcrchp, cmptr chp, r smply chp, s smll lctrnc dvc md p f mltpl ntrcnnctd lctrnc cmpnnts sch s trnsstrs, rsstrs, nd cpctrs. Ths cmpnnts r tchd nt smll pc f smcndctr mtrl, slly slcn. ntgrtd crcts r sd n wd rng f lctrnc dvcs, ncldng cmptrs, smrtphns, nd tlvsns, t prfrm vrs fnctns sch s prcssng nd strng nfrmtn. Thy hv grtly mpctd th fld f lctrncs by nblng dvc mntrztn nd nhncd fnctnlty. ntgrtd crcts r rdrs f mgntd smllr, fstr, nd lss xpnsv thn ths cnstrctd f dscrt cmpnnts, llwng lrg trnsstr cnt. Th C's mss prdctn cpblty, rlblty, nd bldng-blck pprch t ntgrtd crct dsgn hv nsrd th rpd dptn f stndrdzd Cs n plc f dsgns sng dscrt trnsstrs. Cs r nw sd n vrtlly ll lctrnc qpmnt nd hv rvltnzd th wrld f lctrncs. Cmptrs, mbl phns, nd thr hm pplncs r nw ssntl prts f th strctr f mdrn scts, md pssbl by th smll sz nd lw cst f Cs sch s mdrn cmptr prcssrs nd mcrcntrllrs. Vry-lrg-scl ntgrtn ws md prctcl by tchnlgcl dvncmnts n smcndctr dvc fbrctn. Snc thr rgns n th 1960s, th sz, spd, nd cpcty f chps hv prgrssd nrmsly, drvn by tchncl dvncs tht ft mr nd mr trnsstrs n chps f th sm sz – mdrn chp my hv mny bllns f trnsstrs n n r th sz f hmn fngrnl. Ths dvncs, rghly fllwng Mr's lw, mk th cmptr chps f tdy pssss mllns f tms th cpcty nd thsnds f tms th spd f th cmptr chps f th rly 1970s. Cs hv thr mn dvntgs vr crcts cnstrctd t f dscrt cmpnnts: sz, cst nd prfrmnc. Th sz nd cst s lw bcs th chps, wth ll thr cmpnnts, r prntd s nt by phtlthgrphy rthr thn bng cnstrctd n trnsstr t tm. Frthrmr, pckgd Cs s mch lss mtrl thn dscrt crcts. Prfrmnc s hgh bcs th C's cmpnnts swtch qckly nd cnsm cmprtvly lttl pwr bcs f thr smll sz nd prxmty. Th mn dsdvntg f Cs s th hgh ntl cst f dsgnng thm nd th nrms cptl cst f fctry cnstrctn. Ths hgh ntl cst mns Cs r nly cmmrclly vbl whn hgh prdctn vlms r ntcptd. n ntgrtd crct s dfnd s: crct n whch ll r sm f th crct lmnts r nsprbly ssctd nd lctrclly ntrcnnctd s tht t s cnsdrd t b ndvsbl fr th prpss f cnstrctn nd cmmrc. n strct sg, ntgrtd crct rfrs t th sngl-pc crct cnstrctn rgnlly knwn s mnlthc ntgrtd crct, blt n sngl pc f slcn. n gnrl sg, crcts nt mtng ths strct dfntn r smtms rfrrd t s Cs, whch r cnstrctd sng mny dffrnt tchnlgs, .g. 3D C, 2.5D C, MCM, thn-flm trnsstrs, thck-flm tchnlgs, r hybrd ntgrtd crcts. Th chc f trmnlgy frqntly pprs n dscssns rltd t whthr Mr's Lw s bslt. n rly ttmpt t cmbnng svrl cmpnnts n n dvc (lk mdrn Cs) ws th Lw 3NF vcm tb frst md n 1926. nlk Cs, t ws dsgnd wth th prps f tx vdnc, s n Grmny, rd rcvrs hd tx tht ws lvd dpndng n hw mny tb hldrs rd rcvr hd. t llwd rd rcvrs t hv sngl tb hldr. n mlln wr mnfctrd, nd wr " frst stp n ntgrtn f rdlctrnc dvcs". Th dvc cntnd n mplfr, cmpsd f thr trds, tw cpctrs nd fr rsstrs n sx-pn dvc. rly cncpts f n ntgrtd crct g bck t 1949, whn Grmn ngnr Wrnr Jcb (Smns G) fld ptnt fr n ntgrtd-crct-lk smcndctr mplfyng dvc shwng fv trnsstrs n cmmn sbstrt n thr-stg mplfr rrngmnt. Jcb dsclsd smll nd chp hrng ds s typcl ndstrl pplctns f hs ptnt. n mmdt cmmrcl s f hs ptnt hs nt bn rprtd. nthr rly prpnnt f th cncpt ws Gffry Dmmr (1909–2002), rdr scntst wrkng fr th Ryl Rdr stblshmnt f th Brtsh Mnstry f Dfnc. Dmmr prsntd th d t th pblc t th Sympsm n Prgrss n Qlty lctrnc Cmpnnts n Wshngtn, D.C., n 7 My 1952. H gv mny symps pblcly t prpgt hs ds nd nsccssflly ttmptd t bld sch crct n 1956. Btwn 1953 nd 1957, Sdny Drlngtn nd Ys Tr (lctrtchncl Lbrtry) prpsd smlr chp dsgns whr svrl trnsstrs cld shr cmmn ctv r, bt thr ws n lctrcl sltn t sprt thm frm ch thr. Th mnlthc ntgrtd crct chp ws nbld by th nvntns f th plnr prcss by Jn Hrn nd p–n jnctn sltn by Krt Lhvc. Hrn's nvntn ws blt n Mhmd M. tll's wrk n srfc pssvtn, s wll s Fllr nd Dtznbrgr's wrk n th dffsn f brn nd phsphrs mprts nt slcn, Crl Frsch nd Lncln Drck's wrk n srfc prtctn, nd Chh-Tng Sh's wrk n dffsn mskng by th xd. prcrsr d t th C ws t crt smll crmc sbstrts (s-clld mcrmdls), ch cntnng sngl mntrzd cmpnnt. Cmpnnts cld thn b ntgrtd nd wrd nt bdmnsnl r trdmnsnl cmpct grd. Ths d, whch smd vry prmsng n 1957, ws prpsd t th S rmy by Jck Klby nd ld t th shrt-lvd Mcrmdl Prgrm (smlr t 1951's Prjct Tnkrty). Hwvr, s th prjct ws gnng mmntm, Klby cm p wth nw, rvltnry dsgn: th C. Nwly mplyd by Txs nstrmnts, Klby rcrdd hs ntl ds cncrnng th ntgrtd crct n Jly 1958, sccssflly dmnstrtng th frst wrkng xmpl f n ntgrtd crct n 12 Sptmbr 1958. n hs ptnt pplctn f 6 Fbrry 1959, Klby dscrbd hs nw dvc s " bdy f smcndctr mtrl … whrn ll th cmpnnts f th lctrnc crct r cmpltly ntgrtd". Th frst cstmr fr th nw nvntn ws th S r Frc. Klby wn th 2000 Nbl Prz n physcs fr hs prt n th nvntn f th ntgrtd crct. Hwvr, Klby's nvntn ws nt tr mnlthc ntgrtd crct chp snc t hd xtrnl gld-wr cnnctns, whch wld hv md t dffclt t mss-prdc. Hlf yr ftr Klby, Rbrt Nyc t Frchld Smcndctr nvntd th frst tr mnlthc C chp. Mr prctcl thn Klby's mplmnttn, Nyc's chp ws md f slcn, whrs Klby's ws md f grmnm, nd Nyc's ws fbrctd sng th plnr prcss, dvlpd n rly 1959 by hs cllg Jn Hrn nd ncldd th crtcl n-chp lmnm ntrcnnctng lns. Mdrn C chps r bsd n Nyc's mnlthc C, rthr thn Klby's. NS's pll Prgrm ws th lrgst sngl cnsmr f ntgrtd crcts btwn 1961 nd 1965. Trnsstr–trnsstr lgc (TTL) ws dvlpd by Jms L. B n th rly 1960s t TRW nc. TTL bcm th dmnnt ntgrtd crct tchnlgy drng th 1970s t rly 1980s. Dzns f TTL ntgrtd crcts wr stndrd mthd f cnstrctn fr th prcssrs f mncmptrs nd mnfrm cmptrs. Cmptrs sch s BM 360 mnfrms, PDP-11 mncmptrs nd th dsktp Dtpnt 2200 wr blt frm bplr ntgrtd crcts, thr TTL r th vn fstr mttr-cpld lgc (CL). n PRM s typ f chp whs cncpt ws dvlpd by srl lctrcl ngnr, Dv Frhmn n 1969 nd dvlpd n prctc n 1971 whl Frhmn wrkd fr ntl. Nrly ll mdrn C chps r mtl–xd–smcndctr (MS) ntgrtd crcts, blt frm MSFTs (mtl–xd–slcn fld-ffct trnsstrs). Th MSFT (ls knwn s th MS trnsstr), whch ws nvntd by Mhmd M. tll nd Dwn Khng t Bll Lbs n 1959, md t pssbl t bld hgh-dnsty ntgrtd crcts. n cntrst t bplr trnsstrs whch rqrd nmbr f stps fr th p–n jnctn sltn f trnsstrs n chp, MSFTs rqrd n sch stps bt cld b sly sltd frm ch thr. ts dvntg fr ntgrtd crcts ws pntd t by Dwn Khng n 1961. Th lst f mlstns nclds th frst ntgrtd crct by Klby n 1958, Hrn's plnr prcss nd Nyc's plnr C n 1959, nd th MSFT by tll nd Khng n 1959. Th rlst xprmntl MS C t b fbrctd ws 16-trnsstr chp blt by Frd Hmn nd Stvn Hfstn t RC n 1962. Gnrl Mcrlctrncs ltr ntrdcd th frst cmmrcl MS ntgrtd crct n 1964, 120-trnsstr shft rgstr dvlpd by Rbrt Nrmn. By 1964, MS chps hd rchd hghr trnsstr dnsty nd lwr mnfctrng csts thn bplr chps. MS chps frthr ncrsd n cmplxty t rt prdctd by Mr's lw, ldng t lrg-scl ntgrtn (LS) wth hndrds f trnsstrs n sngl MS chp by th lt 1960s. Fllwng th dvlpmnt f th slf-lgnd gt (slcn-gt) MSFT by Rbrt Krwn, Dnld Kln nd Jhn Src t Bll Lbs n 1967, th frst slcn-gt MS C tchnlgy wth slf-lgnd gts, th bss f ll mdrn CMS ntgrtd crcts, ws dvlpd t Frchld Smcndctr by Fdrc Fggn n 1968. Th pplctn f MS LS chps t cmptng ws th bss fr th frst mcrprcssrs, s ngnrs bgn rcgnzng tht cmplt cmptr prcssr cld b cntnd n sngl MS LS chp. Ths ld t th nvntns f th mcrprcssr nd th mcrcntrllr by th rly 1970s. Drng th rly 1970s, MS ntgrtd crct tchnlgy nbld th vry lrg-scl ntgrtn (VLS) f mr thn 10,000 trnsstrs n sngl chp. t frst, MS-bsd cmptrs nly md sns whn hgh dnsty ws rqrd, sch s rspc nd pckt clcltrs. Cmptrs blt ntrly frm TTL, sch s th 1970 Dtpnt 2200, wr mch fstr nd mr pwrfl thn sngl-chp MS mcrprcssrs sch s th 1972 ntl 8008 ntl th rly 1980s. dvncs n C tchnlgy, prmrly smllr ftrs nd lrgr chps, hv llwd th nmbr f MS trnsstrs n n ntgrtd crct t dbl vry tw yrs, trnd knwn s Mr's lw. Mr rgnlly sttd t wld dbl vry yr, bt h wnt n t chng th clm t vry tw yrs n 1975. Ths ncrsd cpcty hs bn sd t dcrs cst nd ncrs fnctnlty. n gnrl, s th ftr sz shrnks, lmst vry spct f n C's prtn mprvs. Th cst pr trnsstr nd th swtchng pwr cnsmptn pr trnsstr gs dwn, whl th mmry cpcty nd spd g p, thrgh th rltnshps dfnd by Dnnrd sclng (MSFT sclng). Bcs spd, cpcty, nd pwr cnsmptn gns r pprnt t th nd sr, thr s frc cmpttn mng th mnfctrrs t s fnr gmtrs. vr th yrs, trnsstr szs hv dcrsd frm tns f mcrns n th rly 1970s t 10 nnmtrs n 2017 wth crrspndng mlln-fld ncrs n trnsstrs pr nt r. s f 2016, typcl chp rs rng frm fw sqr mllmtrs t rnd 600 mm2, wth p t 25 mlln trnsstrs pr mm2. Th xpctd shrnkng f ftr szs nd th ndd prgrss n rltd rs ws frcst fr mny yrs by th ntrntnl Tchnlgy Rdmp fr Smcndctrs (TRS). Th fnl TRS ws ssd n 2016, nd t s bng rplcd by th ntrntnl Rdmp fr Dvcs nd Systms. ntlly, Cs wr strctly lctrnc dvcs. Th sccss f Cs hs ld t th ntgrtn f thr tchnlgs, n n ttmpt t btn th sm dvntgs f smll sz nd lw cst. Ths tchnlgs ncld mchncl dvcs, ptcs, nd snsrs. Chrg-cpld dvcs, nd th clsly rltd ctv-pxl snsrs, r chps tht r snstv t lght. Thy hv lrgly rplcd phtgrphc flm n scntfc, mdcl, nd cnsmr pplctns. Bllns f ths dvcs r nw prdcd ch yr fr pplctns sch s cllphns, tblts, nd dgtl cmrs. Ths sb-fld f Cs wn th Nbl Prz n 2009. Vry smll mchncl dvcs drvn by lctrcty cn b ntgrtd nt chps, tchnlgy knwn s mcrlctrmchncl systms (MMS). Ths dvcs wr dvlpd n th lt 1980s nd r sd n vrty f cmmrcl nd mltry pplctns. xmpls ncld DLP prjctrs, nkjt prntrs, nd cclrmtrs nd MMS gyrscps sd t dply tmbl rbgs. Snc th rly 2000s, th ntgrtn f ptcl fnctnlty (ptcl cmptng) nt slcn chps hs bn ctvly prsd n bth cdmc rsrch nd n ndstry rsltng n th sccssfl cmmrclztn f slcn bsd ntgrtd ptcl trnscvrs cmbnng ptcl dvcs (mdltrs, dtctrs, rtng) wth CMS bsd lctrncs. Phtnc ntgrtd crcts tht s lght sch s Lghtllgnc's PC (Phtnc rthmtc Cmptng ngn) ls bng dvlpd, sng th mrgng fld f physcs knwn s phtncs. ntgrtd crcts r ls bng dvlpd fr snsr pplctns n mdcl mplnts r thr blctrnc dvcs. Spcl slng tchnqs hv t b ppld n sch bgnc nvrnmnts t vd crrsn r bdgrdtn f th xpsd smcndctr mtrls. s f 2018, th vst mjrty f ll trnsstrs r MSFTs fbrctd n sngl lyr n n sd f chp f slcn n flt tw-dmnsnl plnr prcss. Rsrchrs hv prdcd prttyps f svrl prmsng ltrntvs, sch s: vrs pprchs t stckng svrl lyrs f trnsstrs t mk thr-dmnsnl ntgrtd crct (3DC), sch s thrgh-slcn v, "mnlthc 3D", stckd wr bndng, nd thr mthdlgs. trnsstrs blt frm thr mtrls: grphn trnsstrs, mlybdnt trnsstrs, crbn nntb fld-ffct trnsstr, gllm ntrd trnsstr, trnsstr-lk nnwr lctrnc dvcs, rgnc fld-ffct trnsstr, tc. fbrctng trnsstrs vr th ntr srfc f smll sphr f slcn. mdfctns t th sbstrt, typclly t mk "flxbl trnsstrs" fr flxbl dsply r thr flxbl lctrncs, pssbly ldng t rll-wy cmptr. s t bcms mr dffclt t mnfctr vr smllr trnsstrs, cmpns r sng mlt-chp mdls, thr-dmnsnl ntgrtd crcts, pckg n pckg, Hgh Bndwdth Mmry nd thrgh-slcn vs wth d stckng t ncrs prfrmnc nd rdc sz, wtht hvng t rdc th sz f th trnsstrs. Sch tchnqs r cllctvly knwn s dvncd pckgng. dvncd pckgng s mnly dvdd nt 2.5D nd 3D pckgng. 2.5D dscrbs pprchs sch s mlt-chp mdls whl 3D dscrbs pprchs whr ds r stckd n n wy r nthr, sch s pckg n pckg nd hgh bndwdth mmry. ll pprchs nvlv 2 r mr ds n sngl pckg. ltrntvly, pprchs sch s 3D NND stck mltpl lyrs n sngl d. tchnq hs bn dmnstrtd t ncld mcrfldc clng n ntgrtd crcts, t mprv clng prfrmnc s wll s pltr thrmlctrc clrs n sldr bmps, r thrml sldr bmps sd xclsvly fr ht dssptn, sd n flp-chp. Th cst f dsgnng nd dvlpng cmplx ntgrtd crct s qt hgh, nrmlly n th mltpl tns f mllns f dllrs. Thrfr, t nly mks cnmc sns t prdc ntgrtd crct prdcts wth hgh prdctn vlm, s th nn-rcrrng ngnrng (NR) csts r sprd crss typclly mllns f prdctn nts. Mdrn smcndctr chps hv bllns f cmpnnts, nd r fr t cmplx t b dsgnd by hnd. Sftwr tls t hlp th dsgnr r ssntl. lctrnc dsgn tmtn (D), ls rfrrd t s lctrnc cmptr-dd dsgn (CD), s ctgry f sftwr tls fr dsgnng lctrnc systms, ncldng ntgrtd crcts. Th tls wrk tgthr n dsgn flw tht ngnrs s t dsgn, vrfy, nd nlyz ntr smcndctr chps. Sm f th ltst D tls s rtfcl ntllgnc () t hlp ngnrs sv tm nd mprv chp prfrmnc. ntgrtd crcts cn b brdly clssfd nt nlg, dgtl nd mxd sgnl, cnsstng f nlg nd dgtl sgnlng n th sm C. Dgtl ntgrtd crcts cn cntn bllns f lgc gts, flp-flps, mltplxrs, nd thr crcts n fw sqr mllmtrs. Th smll sz f ths crcts llws hgh spd, lw pwr dssptn, nd rdcd mnfctrng cst cmprd wth brd-lvl ntgrtn. Ths dgtl Cs, typclly mcrprcssrs, DSPs, nd mcrcntrllrs, s bln lgbr t prcss "n" nd "zr" sgnls. mng th mst dvncd ntgrtd crcts r th mcrprcssrs r "crs", sd n prsnl cmptrs, cll-phns, mcrwv vns, tc. Svrl crs my b ntgrtd tgthr n sngl C r chp. Dgtl mmry chps nd pplctn-spcfc ntgrtd crcts (SCs) r xmpls f thr fmls f ntgrtd crcts. n th 1980s, prgrmmbl lgc dvcs wr dvlpd. Ths dvcs cntn crcts whs lgcl fnctn nd cnnctvty cn b prgrmmd by th sr, rthr thn bng fxd by th ntgrtd crct mnfctrr. Ths llws chp t b prgrmmd t d vrs LS-typ fnctns sch s lgc gts, ddrs nd rgstrs. Prgrmmblty cms n vrs frms – dvcs tht cn b prgrmmd nly nc, dvcs tht cn b rsd nd thn r-prgrmmd sng V lght, dvcs tht cn b (r)prgrmmd sng flsh mmry, nd fld-prgrmmbl gt rrys (FPGs) whch cn b prgrmmd t ny tm, ncldng drng prtn. Crrnt FPGs cn (s f 2016) mplmnt th qvlnt f mllns f gts nd prt t frqncs p t 1 GHz. nlg Cs, sch s snsrs, pwr mngmnt crcts, nd prtnl mplfrs (p-mps), prcss cntns sgnls, nd prfrm nlg fnctns sch s mplfctn, ctv fltrng, dmdltn, nd mxng. Cs cn cmbn nlg nd dgtl crcts n chp t crt fnctns sch s nlg-t-dgtl cnvrtrs nd dgtl-t-nlg cnvrtrs. Sch mxd-sgnl crcts ffr smllr sz nd lwr cst, bt mst ccnt fr sgnl ntrfrnc. Prr t th lt 1990s, rds cld nt b fbrctd n th sm lw-cst CMS prcsss s mcrprcssrs. Bt snc 1998, rd chps hv bn dvlpd sng RF CMS prcsss. xmpls ncld ntl's DCT crdlss phn, r 802.11 (W-F) chps crtd by thrs nd thr cmpns. Mdrn lctrnc cmpnnt dstrbtrs ftn frthr sb-ctgrz ntgrtd crcts: Dgtl Cs r ctgrzd s lgc Cs (sch s mcrprcssrs nd mcrcntrllrs), mmry chps (sch s MS mmry nd fltng-gt mmry), ntrfc Cs (lvl shftrs, srlzr/dsrlzr, tc.), pwr mngmnt Cs, nd prgrmmbl dvcs. nlg Cs r ctgrzd s lnr ntgrtd crcts nd RF crcts (rd frqncy crcts). Mxd-sgnl ntgrtd crcts r ctgrzd s dt cqstn Cs (ncldng /D cnvrtrs, D/ cnvrtrs, dgtl ptntmtrs), clck/tmng Cs, swtchd cpctr (SC) crcts, nd RF CMS crcts. Thr-dmnsnl ntgrtd crcts (3D Cs) r ctgrzd nt thrgh-slcn v (TSV) Cs nd C-C cnnctn Cs. Th smcndctrs f th prdc tbl f th chmcl lmnts wr dntfd s th mst lkly mtrls fr sld-stt vcm tb. Strtng wth cppr xd, prcdng t grmnm, thn slcn, th mtrls wr systmtclly stdd n th 1940s nd 1950s. Tdy, mncrystlln slcn s th mn sbstrt sd fr Cs lthgh sm -V cmpnds f th prdc tbl sch s gllm rsnd r sd fr spclzd pplctns lk LDs, lsrs, slr clls nd th hghst-spd ntgrtd crcts. t tk dcds t prfct mthds f crtng crystls wth mnml dfcts n smcndctng mtrls' crystl strctr. Smcndctr Cs r fbrctd n plnr prcss whch nclds thr ky prcss stps – phtlthgrphy, dpstn (sch s chmcl vpr dpstn), nd tchng. Th mn prcss stps r spplmntd by dpng nd clnng. Mr rcnt r hgh-prfrmnc Cs my nstd s mlt-gt FnFT r GFT trnsstrs nstd f plnr ns, strtng t th 22 nm nd (ntl) r 16/14 nm nds. Mn-crystl slcn wfrs r sd n mst pplctns (r fr spcl pplctns, thr smcndctrs sch s gllm rsnd r sd). Th wfr nd nt b ntrly slcn. Phtlthgrphy s sd t mrk dffrnt rs f th sbstrt t b dpd r t hv plyslcn, nsltrs r mtl (typclly lmnm r cppr) trcks dpstd n thm. Dpnts r mprts ntntnlly ntrdcd t smcndctr t mdlt ts lctrnc prprts. Dpng s th prcss f ddng dpnts t smcndctr mtrl. ntgrtd crcts r cmpsd f mny vrlppng lyrs, ch dfnd by phtlthgrphy, nd nrmlly shwn n dffrnt clrs. Sm lyrs mrk whr vrs dpnts r dffsd nt th sbstrt (clld dffsn lyrs), sm dfn whr ddtnl ns r mplntd (mplnt lyrs), sm dfn th cndctrs (dpd plyslcn r mtl lyrs), nd sm dfn th cnnctns btwn th cndctng lyrs (v r cntct lyrs). ll cmpnnts r cnstrctd frm spcfc cmbntn f ths lyrs. n slf-lgnd CMS prcss, trnsstr s frmd whrvr th gt lyr (plyslcn r mtl) crsss dffsn lyr (ths s clld "th slf-lgnd gt").: p.1 (s Fg. 1.1)  Cpctv strctrs, n frm vry mch lk th prlll cndctng plts f trdtnl lctrcl cpctr, r frmd ccrdng t th r f th "plts", wth nsltng mtrl btwn th plts. Cpctrs f wd rng f szs r cmmn n Cs. Mndrng strps f vryng lngths r smtms sd t frm n-chp rsstrs, thgh mst lgc crcts d nt nd ny rsstrs. Th rt f th lngth f th rsstv strctr t ts wdth, cmbnd wth ts sht rsstvty, dtrmns th rsstnc. Mr rrly, ndctv strctrs cn b blt s tny n-chp cls, r smltd by gyrtrs. Snc CMS dvc nly drws crrnt n th trnstn btwn lgc stts, CMS dvcs cnsm mch lss crrnt thn bplr jnctn trnsstr dvcs. rndm-ccss mmry s th mst rglr typ f ntgrtd crct; th hghst dnsty dvcs r ths mmrs; bt vn mcrprcssr wll hv mmry n th chp. (S th rglr rry strctr t th bttm f th frst mg.) lthgh th strctrs r ntrct – wth wdths whch hv bn shrnkng fr dcds – th lyrs rmn mch thnnr thn th dvc wdths. Th lyrs f mtrl r fbrctd mch lk phtgrphc prcss, lthgh lght wvs n th vsbl spctrm cnnt b sd t "xps" lyr f mtrl, s thy wld b t lrg fr th ftrs. Ths phtns f hghr frqncs (typclly ltrvlt) r sd t crt th pttrns fr ch lyr. Bcs ch ftr s s smll, lctrn mcrscps r ssntl tls fr prcss ngnr wh mght b dbggng fbrctn prcss. ch dvc s tstd bfr pckgng sng tmtd tst qpmnt (T), n prcss knwn s wfr tstng, r wfr prbng. Th wfr s thn ct nt rctnglr blcks, ch f whch s clld d. ch gd d (plrl dc, ds, r d) s thn cnnctd nt pckg sng lmnm (r gld) bnd wrs whch r thrmsnclly bndd t pds, slly fnd rnd th dg f th d. Thrmsnc bndng ws frst ntrdcd by . Ccls whch prvdd rlbl mns f frmng ths vtl lctrcl cnnctns t th tsd wrld. ftr pckgng, th dvcs g thrgh fnl tstng n th sm r smlr T sd drng wfr prbng. ndstrl CT scnnng cn ls b sd. Tst cst cn ccnt fr vr 25% f th cst f fbrctn n lwr-cst prdcts, bt cn b nglgbl n lw-yldng, lrgr, r hghr-cst dvcs. s f 2022, fbrctn fclty (cmmnly knwn s smcndctr fb) cn cst vr S$12 blln t cnstrct. Th cst f fbrctn fclty rss vr tm bcs f ncrsd cmplxty f nw prdcts; ths s knwn s Rck's lw. Sch fclty ftrs: Th wfrs p t 300 mm n dmtr (wdr thn cmmn dnnr plt). s f 2022, 5 nm trnsstrs. Cppr ntrcnncts whr cppr wrng rplcs lmnm fr ntrcnncts. Lw-κ dlctrc nsltrs. Slcn n nsltr (S). Strnd slcn n prcss sd by BM knwn s Strnd slcn drctly n nsltr (SSD). Mltgt dvcs sch s tr-gt trnsstrs. Cs cn b mnfctrd thr n-hs by ntgrtd dvc mnfctrrs (DMs) r sng th fndry mdl. DMs r vrtclly ntgrtd cmpns (lk ntl nd Smsng) tht dsgn, mnfctr nd sll thr wn Cs, nd my ffr dsgn nd/r mnfctrng (fndry) srvcs t thr cmpns (th lttr ftn t fblss cmpns). n th fndry mdl, fblss cmpns (lk Nvd) nly dsgn nd sll Cs nd tsrc ll mnfctrng t pr ply fndrs sch s TSMC. Ths fndrs my ffr C dsgn srvcs. Th rlst ntgrtd crcts wr pckgd n crmc flt pcks, whch cntnd t b sd by th mltry fr thr rlblty nd smll sz fr mny yrs. Cmmrcl crct pckgng qckly mvd t th dl n-ln pckg (DP), frst n crmc nd ltr n plstc, whch s cmmnly crsl-frmldhyd-nvlc. n th 1980s pn cnts f VLS crcts xcdd th prctcl lmt fr DP pckgng, ldng t pn grd rry (PG) nd ldlss chp crrr (LCC) pckgs. Srfc mnt pckgng pprd n th rly 1980s nd bcm pplr n th lt 1980s, sng fnr ld ptch wth lds frmd s thr gll-wng r J-ld, s xmplfd by th smll-tln ntgrtd crct (SC) pckg – crrr whch ccps n r bt 30–50% lss thn n qvlnt DP nd s typclly 70% thnnr. Ths pckg hs "gll wng" lds prtrdng frm th tw lng sds nd ld spcng f 0.050 nchs. n th lt 1990s, plstc qd flt pck (PQFP) nd thn smll-tln pckg (TSP) pckgs bcm th mst cmmn fr hgh pn cnt dvcs, thgh PG pckgs r stll sd fr hgh-nd mcrprcssrs. Bll grd rry (BG) pckgs hv xstd snc th 1970s. Flp-chp Bll Grd rry pckgs, whch llw fr mch hghr pn cnt thn thr pckg typs, wr dvlpd n th 1990s. n n FCBG pckg, th d s mntd psd-dwn (flppd) nd cnncts t th pckg blls v pckg sbstrt tht s smlr t prntd-crct brd rthr thn by wrs. FCBG pckgs llw n rry f npt-tpt sgnls (clld r-/) t b dstrbtd vr th ntr d rthr thn bng cnfnd t th d prphry. BG dvcs hv th dvntg f nt ndng ddctd sckt bt r mch hrdr t rplc n cs f dvc flr. ntl trnstnd wy frm PG t lnd grd rry (LG) nd BG bgnnng n 2004, wth th lst PG sckt rlsd n 2014 fr mbl pltfrms. s f 2018, MD ss PG pckgs n mnstrm dsktp prcssrs, BG pckgs n mbl prcssrs, nd hgh-nd dsktp nd srvr mcrprcssrs s LG pckgs. lctrcl sgnls lvng th d mst pss thrgh th mtrl lctrclly cnnctng th d t th pckg, thrgh th cndctv trcs (pths) n th pckg, thrgh th lds cnnctng th pckg t th cndctv trcs n th prntd crct brd. Th mtrls nd strctrs sd n th pth ths lctrcl sgnls mst trvl hv vry dffrnt lctrcl prprts, cmprd t ths tht trvl t dffrnt prts f th sm d. s rslt, thy rqr spcl dsgn tchnqs t nsr th sgnls r nt crrptd, nd mch mr lctrc pwr thn sgnls cnfnd t th d tslf. Whn mltpl ds r pt n n pckg, th rslt s systm n pckg, bbrvtd SP. mlt-chp mdl (MCM), s crtd by cmbnng mltpl ds n smll sbstrt ftn md f crmc. Th dstnctn btwn lrg MCM nd smll prntd crct brd s smtms fzzy. Pckgd ntgrtd crcts r slly lrg ngh t ncld dntfyng nfrmtn. Fr cmmn sctns r th mnfctrr's nm r lg, th prt nmbr, prt prdctn btch nmbr nd srl nmbr, nd fr-dgt dt-cd t dntfy whn th chp ws mnfctrd. xtrmly smll srfc-mnt tchnlgy prts ftn br nly nmbr sd n mnfctrr's lkp tbl t fnd th ntgrtd crct's chrctrstcs. Th mnfctrng dt s cmmnly rprsntd s tw-dgt yr fllwd by tw-dgt wk cd, sch tht prt brng th cd 8341 ws mnfctrd n wk 41 f 1983, r pprxmtly n ctbr 1983. Th pssblty f cpyng by phtgrphng ch lyr f n ntgrtd crct nd prprng phtmsks fr ts prdctn n th bss f th phtgrphs btnd s rsn fr th ntrdctn f lgsltn fr th prtctn f lyt dsgns. Th S Smcndctr Chp Prtctn ct f 1984 stblshd ntllctl prprty prtctn fr phtmsks sd t prdc ntgrtd crcts. dplmtc cnfrnc hld t Wshngtn, D.C., n 1989 dptd Trty n ntllctl Prprty n Rspct f ntgrtd Crcts, ls clld th Wshngtn Trty r PC Trty. Th trty s crrntly nt n frc, bt ws prtlly ntgrtd nt th TRPS grmnt. Thr r svrl ntd Stts ptnts cnnctd t th ntgrtd crct, whch ncld ptnts by J.S. Klby S3,138,743, S3,261,081, S3,434,015 nd by R.F. Stwrt S3,138,747. Ntnl lws prtctng C lyt dsgns hv bn dptd n nmbr f cntrs, ncldng Jpn, th C, th K, strl, nd Kr. Th K nctd th Cpyrght, Dsgns nd Ptnts ct, 1988, c. 48, § 213, ftr t ntlly tk th pstn tht ts cpyrght lw flly prtctd chp tpgrphs. S Brtsh Lylnd Mtr Crp. v. rmstrng Ptnts C. Crtcsms f ndqcy f th K cpyrght pprch s prcvd by th S chp ndstry r smmrzd n frthr chp rghts dvlpmnts. strl pssd th Crct Lyts ct f 1989 s s gnrs frm f chp prtctn. Kr pssd th ct Cncrnng th Lyt-Dsgn f Smcndctr ntgrtd Crcts n 1992. n th rly dys f smpl ntgrtd crcts, th tchnlgy's lrg scl lmtd ch chp t nly fw trnsstrs, nd th lw dgr f ntgrtn mnt th dsgn prcss ws rltvly smpl. Mnfctrng ylds wr ls qt lw by tdy's stndrds. s mtl–xd–smcndctr (MS) tchnlgy prgrssd, mllns nd thn bllns f MS trnsstrs cld b plcd n n chp, nd gd dsgns rqrd thrgh plnnng, gvng rs t th fld f lctrnc dsgn tmtn, r D. Sm SS nd MS chps, lk dscrt trnsstrs, r stll mss-prdcd, bth t mntn ld qpmnt nd bld nw dvcs tht rqr nly fw gts. Th 7400 srs f TTL chps, fr xmpl, hs bcm d fct stndrd nd rmns n prdctn. Th frst ntgrtd crcts cntnd nly fw trnsstrs. rly dgtl crcts cntnng tns f trnsstrs prvdd fw lgc gts, nd rly lnr Cs sch s th Plssy SL201 r th Phlps T320 hd s fw s tw trnsstrs. Th nmbr f trnsstrs n n ntgrtd crct hs ncrsd drmtclly snc thn. Th trm "lrg scl ntgrtn" (LS) ws frst sd by BM scntst Rlf Lndr whn dscrbng th thrtcl cncpt; tht trm gv rs t th trms "smll-scl ntgrtn" (SS), "mdm-scl ntgrtn" (MS), "vry-lrg-scl ntgrtn" (VLS), nd "ltr-lrg-scl ntgrtn" (LS). Th rly ntgrtd crcts wr SS. SS crcts wr crcl t rly rspc prjcts, nd rspc prjcts hlpd nspr dvlpmnt f th tchnlgy. Bth th Mntmn mssl nd pll prgrm ndd lghtwght dgtl cmptrs fr thr nrtl gdnc systms. lthgh th pll Gdnc Cmptr ld nd mtvtd ntgrtd-crct tchnlgy, t ws th Mntmn mssl tht frcd t nt mss-prdctn. Th Mntmn mssl prgrm nd vrs thr ntd Stts Nvy prgrms ccntd fr th ttl $4 mlln ntgrtd crct mrkt n 1962, nd by 1968, .S. Gvrnmnt spndng n spc nd dfns stll ccntd fr 37% f th $312 mlln ttl prdctn. Th dmnd by th .S. Gvrnmnt spprtd th nscnt ntgrtd crct mrkt ntl csts fll ngh t llw C frms t pntrt th ndstrl mrkt nd vntlly th cnsmr mrkt. Th vrg prc pr ntgrtd crct drppd frm $50.00 n 1962 t $2.33 n 1968. ntgrtd crcts bgn t ppr n cnsmr prdcts by th trn f th 1970s dcd. typcl pplctn ws FM ntr-crrr snd prcssng n tlvsn rcvrs. Th frst pplctn MS chps wr smll-scl ntgrtn (SS) chps. Fllwng Mhmd M. tll's prpsl f th MS ntgrtd crct chp n 1960, th rlst xprmntl MS chp t b fbrctd ws 16-trnsstr chp blt by Frd Hmn nd Stvn Hfstn t RC n 1962. Th frst prctcl pplctn f MS SS chps ws fr NS stllts. Th nxt stp n th dvlpmnt f ntgrtd crcts ntrdcd dvcs whch cntnd hndrds f trnsstrs n ch chp, clld "mdm-scl ntgrtn" (MS). MSFT sclng tchnlgy md t pssbl t bld hgh-dnsty chps. By 1964, MS chps hd rchd hghr trnsstr dnsty nd lwr mnfctrng csts thn bplr chps. n 1964, Frnk Wnlss dmnstrtd sngl-chp 16-bt shft rgstr h dsgnd, wth thn-ncrdbl 120 MS trnsstrs n sngl chp. Th sm yr, Gnrl Mcrlctrncs ntrdcd th frst cmmrcl MS ntgrtd crct chp, cnsstng f 120 p-chnnl MS trnsstrs. t ws 20-bt shft rgstr, dvlpd by Rbrt Nrmn nd Frnk Wnlss. MS chps frthr ncrsd n cmplxty t rt prdctd by Mr's lw, ldng t chps wth hndrds f MSFTs n chp by th lt 1960s. Frthr dvlpmnt, drvn by th sm MSFT sclng tchnlgy nd cnmc fctrs, ld t "lrg-scl ntgrtn" (LS) by th md-1970s, wth tns f thsnds f trnsstrs pr chp. Th msks sd t prcss nd mnfctr SS, MS nd rly LS nd VLS dvcs (sch s th mcrprcssrs f th rly 1970s) wr mstly crtd by hnd, ftn sng Rbylth-tp r smlr. Fr lrg r cmplx Cs (sch s mmrs r prcssrs), ths ws ftn dn by spclly hrd prfssnls n chrg f crct lyt, plcd ndr th sprvsn f tm f ngnrs, wh wld ls, lng wth th crct dsgnrs, nspct nd vrfy th crrctnss nd cmpltnss f ch msk. ntgrtd crcts sch s 1K-bt RMs, clcltr chps, nd th frst mcrprcssrs, tht bgn t b mnfctrd n mdrt qntts n th rly 1970s, hd ndr 4,000 trnsstrs. Tr LS crcts, pprchng 10,000 trnsstrs, bgn t b prdcd rnd 1974, fr cmptr mn mmrs nd scnd-gnrtn mcrprcssrs. "Vry-lrg-scl ntgrtn" (VLS) s dvlpmnt strtd wth hndrds f thsnds f trnsstrs n th rly 1980s, nd, s f 2023, trnsstr cnts cntn t grw bynd 5.3 trlln trnsstrs pr chp. Mltpl dvlpmnts wr rqrd t chv ths ncrsd dnsty. Mnfctrrs mvd t smllr MSFT dsgn rls nd clnr fbrctn fclts. Th pth f prcss mprvmnts ws smmrzd by th ntrntnl Tchnlgy Rdmp fr Smcndctrs (TRS), whch hs snc bn sccdd by th ntrntnl Rdmp fr Dvcs nd Systms (RDS). lctrnc dsgn tls mprvd, mkng t prctcl t fnsh dsgns n rsnbl tm. Th mr nrgy-ffcnt CMS rplcd NMS nd PMS, vdng prhbtv ncrs n pwr cnsmptn. Th cmplxty nd dnsty f mdrn VLS dvcs md t n lngr fsbl t chck th msks r d th rgnl dsgn by hnd. nstd, ngnrs s D tls t prfrm mst fnctnl vrfctn wrk. n 1986, n-mgbt rndm-ccss mmry (RM) chps wr ntrdcd, cntnng mr thn n mlln trnsstrs. Mcrprcssr chps pssd th mlln-trnsstr mrk n 1989, nd th blln-trnsstr mrk n 2005. Th trnd cntns lrgly nbtd, wth chps ntrdcd n 2007 cntnng tns f bllns f mmry trnsstrs. T rflct frthr grwth f th cmplxty, th trm LS tht stnds fr "ltr-lrg-scl ntgrtn" ws prpsd fr chps f mr thn 1 mlln trnsstrs. Wfr-scl ntgrtn (WS) s mns f bldng vry lrg ntgrtd crcts tht ss n ntr slcn wfr t prdc sngl "spr-chp". Thrgh cmbntn f lrg sz nd rdcd pckgng, WS cld ld t drmtclly rdcd csts fr sm systms, ntbly mssvly prlll sprcmptrs. Th nm s tkn frm th trm Vry-Lrg-Scl ntgrtn, th crrnt stt f th rt whn WS ws bng dvlpd. systm-n--chp (SC r SC) s n ntgrtd crct n whch ll th cmpnnts ndd fr cmptr r thr systm r ncldd n sngl chp. Th dsgn f sch dvc cn b cmplx nd cstly, nd whlst prfrmnc bnfts cn b hd frm ntgrtng ll ndd cmpnnts n n d, th cst f lcnsng nd dvlpng n-d mchn stll twgh hvng sprt dvcs. Wth pprprt lcnsng, ths drwbcks r ffst by lwr mnfctrng nd ssmbly csts nd by grtly rdcd pwr bdgt: bcs sgnls mng th cmpnnts r kpt n-d, mch lss pwr s rqrd (s Pckgng). Frthr, sgnl srcs nd dstntns r physclly clsr n d, rdcng th lngth f wrng nd thrfr ltncy, trnsmssn pwr csts nd wst ht frm cmmnctn btwn mdls n th sm chp. Ths hs ld t n xplrtn f s-clld Ntwrk-n-Chp (NC) dvcs, whch pply systm-n-chp dsgn mthdlgs t dgtl cmmnctn ntwrks s ppsd t trdtnl bs rchtctrs. thr-dmnsnl ntgrtd crct (3D-C) hs tw r mr lyrs f ctv lctrnc cmpnnts tht r ntgrtd bth vrtclly nd hrzntlly nt sngl crct. Cmmnctn btwn lyrs ss n-d sgnlng, s pwr cnsmptn s mch lwr thn n qvlnt sprt crcts. Jdcs s f shrt vrtcl wrs cn sbstntlly rdc vrll wr lngth fr fstr prtn. T llw dntfctn drng prdctn, mst slcn chps wll hv srl nmbr n n crnr. t s ls cmmn t dd th mnfctrr's lg. vr snc Cs wr crtd, sm chp dsgnrs hv sd th slcn srfc r fr srrptts, nn-fnctnl mgs r wrds. Ths r smtms rfrrd t s chp rt, slcn rt, slcn grfft r slcn ddlng. Th 555 tmr C Th prtnl mplfr 7400-srs ntgrtd crcts 4000-srs ntgrtd crcts, th CMS cntrprt t th 7400 srs (s ls: 74HC00 srs) ntl 4004, gnrlly rgrdd s th frst cmmrclly vlbl mcrprcssr, whch ld t th 8008, th fms 8080 CP, th 8086, 8088 (sd n th rgnl BM PC), nd th flly-bckwrd cmptbl (wth th 8088/8086) 80286, 80386/386, 486, tc. Th MS Tchnlgy 6502 nd Zlg Z80 mcrprcssrs, sd n mny hm cmptrs f th rly 1980s Th Mtrl 6800 srs f cmptr-rltd chps, ldng t th 68000 nd 88000 srs (th 68000 srs ws vry sccssfl nd ws sd n th ppl Ls nd pr-PwrPC-bsd Mcntsh, Cmmdr mg, tr ST/TT/Flcn030, nd NXT fmls f cmptrs, lng wth mny mdls f wrksttns nd srvrs frm mny mnfctrrs n th 80s, lng wth mny thr systms nd dvcs) Th LM-srs f nlg ntgrtd crcts Cntrl prcssng nt Chp crrr CHPS nd Scnc ct Chpst Czchrlsk mthd Drk slcn n mplnttn ntgrtd njctn lgc ntgrtd pssv dvcs ntrcnnct bttlnck Ht gnrtn n ntgrtd crcts Hgh-tmprtr prtng lf Mcrlctrncs Mnlthc mcrwv ntgrtd crct Mlt-thrshld CMS Slcn–grmnm Snd chp SPC Thrml smltns fr ntgrtd crcts Hybrt Vndrck, H.J.M. (2017). Nnmtr CMS Cs, frm Bscs t SCs. Sprngr. SBN 978-3-319-47595-0. CLC 990149326. Bkr, R.J. (2010). CMS: Crct Dsgn, Lyt, nd Smltn (3rd d.). Wly-. SBN 978-0-470-88132-3. CLC 699889340. Mrsh, Stphn P. (2006). Prctcl MMC dsgn. rtch Hs. SBN 978-1-59693-036-0. CLC 1261968369. Cmnznd, Hns (2005). Dsgnng nlg Chps (PDF). Vrtl Bkwrm. SBN 978-1-58939-718-7. CLC 926613209. rchvd frm th rgnl (PDF) n 12 Jn 2017. Hns Cmnznd nvntd th 555 tmr Hdgs, Dvd; Jcksn, Hrc; Slh, Rsv (2003). nlyss nd Dsgn f Dgtl ntgrtd Crcts. McGrw-Hll. SBN 978-0-07-228365-5. CLC 840380650. Rby, J.M.; Chndrksn, .; Nklc, B. (2003). Dgtl ntgrtd Crcts (2nd d.). Prsn. SBN 978-0-13-090996-1. CLC 893541089. Md, Crvr; Cnwy, Lynn (1991). ntrdctn t VLS systms. ddsn Wsly Pblshng Cmpny. SBN 978-0-201-04358-7. CLC 634332043. Md rltd t ntgrtd crcts t Wkmd Cmmns Th frst mnlthc ntgrtd crcts lrg chrt lstng Cs by gnrc nmbr ncldng ccss t mst f th dtshts fr th prts. Th Hstry f th ntgrtd Crct